Mediation is a dispute resolution process in which a
neutral third party assists the participants to reach a voluntary and informed
settlement. Mediation and diplomacy have both been used more and more
frequently after the Second World War in order to prevent such a tragedy from
reoccurring. Diplomacy is used in several ways. Nevertheless, there are always
exceptions to the rule and not all problems can be resolved peacefully and
without bloodshed. These exceptions must be recognized early so that the proper
measures can be taken to immediately settle the conflict. However, not all
attempts at resolving problems using diplomacy are successful. It is easier to
react when something happens than to act in order for something not to happen.
The term "track-one diplomacy" is conducted
by official representatives of a state or state-like authority and involves
interaction with other state or state-like authorities: heads of state, state
department or ministry of foreign affairs officials, and other governmental departments
and ministries. Track-one diplomacy may also be referred to as "first
track" or "first tier" diplomacy. These official diplomatic
efforts can be distinguished from unofficial interactions, which may involve
conflict resolution specialists, private citizens, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), or businesses. Such unofficial interactions are referred
to as "track-two diplomacy."
The track-one diplomacy takes place bilaterally
between two states, or multilaterally when several states interact together,
and even regionally or globally through inter-governmental organizations
(IGOs). For example, when Estonia and Russia negotiated over issues related to
the Russian-speaking people living in Estonia, these negotiations were examples
of bilateral track-one diplomacy. Much of the work of the United Nations could
be classified as global track-one diplomacy. The track-one diplomacy is used
coercively and may involve sanctions, ultimatums, and psychological
intimidation; it is used persuasively and involve argumentation and/or
compromise; it is used as a means of adjusting states' relationship to and views
of one another; and it is a a tool for reaching mutual agreements---which may
themselves reflect elements of persuasion or coercion.
Track-one diplomacy is used by a third-party state to
help bring about an agreement between other states. As further detailed in the
section below entitled "Track-one diplomacy in Conflict Resolution,"
states may engage in track-one diplomacy as direct participants in negotiations,
as supporters of one or another party to the negotiations, or as third party
mediators. For example, when U.S. President Jimmy Carter negotiated the Camp
David Accords with Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President
Anwar Sadat in 1978, a written document resulted from a combination of formal
meetings and significant informal personal discussions that Carter held with
Begin and with Sadat. War, peacekeeping, and other military and development
initiatives are often not included in traditional definitions of official
diplomacy, although, like track-one diplomacy, such initiatives are led by
official representatives of states or state-like authorities. In addition,
track one diplomats are committed to representing their state's interests,
which may not always include a strong interest in quickly resolving a conflict.
Track-one diplomacy is not always easily applied for successful conflict
resolution.
Within the United Nations there are six areas of
conflict resolution. These areas work together but also have been known to
clash. The six areas are diplomacy, General Assembly resolutions, Security
Council mandates and resolutions, Peacekeeping forces, and Peacemaking forces.
Diplomacy shows us why the UN faces a problematic status in conflict
resolution. Conflict occurs normally and
continually in human society. When opposing groups do not have the skills to
keep the conflict in check, and where other factors such as injustice,
inequality are present, conflict can become violent. These conflicts destroy
the lives of their victims and the quality of life for the survivors.
Inequality may be based on ethnicity, religion, national identity or economic
and social class. In addition, a weak
Government has little capacity to stop the eruption and spread of
violence.
At the inter-group or international level, the term
encompasses a number of different terms: "track two diplomacy,"
citizen diplomacy, "multi-track diplomacy," supplemental diplomacy,
pre-negotiation, consultation, interactive conflict resolution, back-channel
diplomacy, facilitated joint brainstorming, coexistence work. While differing
in emphasis, agenda, and theoretical approach, these initiatives share many
common goals. They attempt to provide an environment that is low-key, non-judgmental,
non-coercive, and safe, and to create a process in which participants feel free
to share perceptions, fears and needs, and to explore ideas for resolution,
free of the constraints of government positions. The process is designed to
encourage the development of mutual understanding of differing perceptions and
needs, the creation of new ideas, and strong problem-solving relationships. Normally,
informal intermediaries are non-governmental actors, such as religious
institutions, academics, former government officials, non-governmental
organizations, humanitarian organizations, and think tanks, among others. In
some cases, however, governments or government officials can act as informal
intermediaries when they facilitate discussions among non-officials -- private
citizens or groups of individuals -- from conflicting parties.
Diplomacy has
remained an important means of responding to regional as well as international
conflicts. Particularly in the present challenging situation, when economic
injustices and military expansion have reached an alarming level, the need to
provide timely warning to the countries involved and suggest concrete solutions
to mounting problems is one of the fundamental tasks of all international
institutions. These issues are usually focused through conferences at both
regional and international levels. Hence, the role of conference diplomacy
cannot be overlooked. The success or
failure of conference diplomacy depends on the circumstances and the sincerity
of the concerned parties, and above all, on their political and economic
compulsions
We are born to struggle
for our own "survival". Throughout our life, we have to compete with
other people to survive or we have to face with unpredictable situations.
Therefore, survival planning is necessary for us because it makes us realize that
something could happen to us and would put us in a survival situation. In
brief, survival is the supreme national interest. Challenges to it lead to war.
VITAL INTEREST #1: Safeguard state
national security. This means, above all, to protect state’s territory,
borders, and airspace.
2. Prevent a major power threat to enemies.
3. Maintain access to foreign trade.
4. Protect the state and its people against threats to their lives and
well-being
5. Maintain access to resources
For example, The U.S. has an important interest in
promoting democracy and free markets abroad, especially in regions where old
totalitarian or authoritarian empires have collapsed. The more democratic the
world becomes, the more peaceful it becomes, and therefore the more congenial
for U.S. values and interests. Strategic interests arise from matters and
developments that do not bear immediately on a state’s security, well-being and domestic tranquility but that have the
potential if left unattended to directly affect these vital interests or the
capacity to advance or defend them. If a state is to prosper its policies and
relationships must be adjusted to address such strategic trends and to bend
them to its greatest advantage or least disadvantage. Strategic interests can
help a state accomplish key objectives and make strategic use of interest
states and groups.
Tactical interests
emerge from the entire range of activities by a state and its nationals beyond
its borders. In brief, the state's tactical advantages influence what interest
groups do politically and their effectiveness. Since terrorists are difficult
to identify, states seek to develop intelligence on their covert activities. A
society’s values find expression in its national ideology which shapes its
international aspirations and inspires the national interests. Ideology
combines with interests to generate national concerns. For example, no national
or international leader has presented anything remotely close to a real
strategy to address problems related to terrorism, oil dependency, geopolitical
tensions, environmental destruction and global warming. They go tactical and
mistake this for a strategy. It is not. It is a sham and a poor excuse for
decisive strategic planning and action. Even if national leaders tactically
succeed in temporarily delaying the progress of terrorists, they will yet be
left with such problem.
Power is a major asset that can bring a country to
power. The national power is measured by their ability to alter and channel the
behavior of other states. For example, the values of the national community and
the operation of its central government are linked together through mediating
institutions, such as corporations, estates and the representative system,
which ensure that the activities of the government broadly express the basic
ideals and interests of groups within the community or its individual members.
If such mediating links do not exist or ends to perform their proper function
the nation or its important sections become alienated from the government and
the integrity or independence of the political community is jeopardized.
Leadership can fortify resolve. The accumulation and effective of power are the
central tasks of statecraft. Power is a major role in political influence. It
affects the politics in foreign policy and many other foreign relations as
well. Power can intimidate or provoke a country to act in a way they might not
act. Power is a major asset that can bring a country to power. Power can also
ruin a country. "Political institutions are the rules that regulate the
exercise of power in societies and in the world. When power becomes
institutionalized - that is, when rules for the use of power are widely
accepted - the holders of power have authority. In today's society a balance of
power is necessary. The term balance of power refers to the relatively equal
power capabilities of rival states or alliances. The balance of power theory
maintains that when one state or alliance increases its power or applies it
more aggressively threatened states will increase their own power in response,
often by forming a counter-balancing coalition. Many states will counter any
threat to their own security by allying with other threatened states and then
increasing their own military capabilities. A state's power is derived from the
size of its land mass, population, and its level of technology. This potential
power s measured into military capability. The effective use of military force
depends on such elements as leadership and other things.
Intelligence is having
the capacity to apply knowledge. It evaluates and gathers information about the
safety of the state but also directs tasks of other agencies in the
intelligence community. The duties of the intelligence of a state are numerous:
engaging in research in military, scientific, and political fields, conducting
counterintelligence activities in other countries, checking foreign television
and radio broadcasts, taking part in espionage, and most importantly warning
national leaders about international occurrences. Many people just don't
realize what espionage is? It involves Industrial, Economic, and just plain old
fashion spying. For example, in some cases, countries take the information that
they have stolen from United States companies and sell the secrets to their own
domestic stores/companies to compete with U.S. companies and companies around
the world. There is a huge phenomenal, growing pain in the economy, the reason
why is we are targets because the United States has the most advanced
technology. By reading Freeman I
conclude that a state is like god, (power, justice and wisdom). It is the all
mighty powerful being that controls all and others just think it's a big
overblown idea. The idea of the state is fairly confusing but rarely ever
challenged. The state is thought to be merely an idea, an ideological thing or
an abstract formal idea. I know that the state is not an object and it doesn't
seem logical to me that the state would be an abstract formal idea; the only
logical explanation for the state is that of it being an idea. The state can
also be seen to hold unknown amounts of power. How the state gets this power,
why the state emerged to form this power and why the people legitimize this
power is debatable. By reading Freeman’s book the “ Arts of power” I conclude
that diplomacy is the activity of preventing and solving conflicts by
representatives, namely diplomats, of two or more states (nations) conversing
on related controversial issues with expectations toward peaceful agreements.
The most significant catalyst or mechanism used within diplomacy exists as
immunities and privileges. Diplomatic immunity and privilege involves an
exemption or freedom from liability or penalty under criminal and national law.
Consular agreements, extraterritoriality, impunity and extradition are terms
that appear frequently throughout the discussion of diplomatic immunities and
privileges. By reading the author Freeman I also wanted to mention that morality
does not exists, and everyone lives in constant fear as a result in such
condition, there is no place for industry, and consequently no culture of the
earth, no navigation, nor use of the commodities that maybe imported by sea; no
commodious building, no knowledge of the face of the earth, no account of time,
no arts, no letters, no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and
danger of violent death; and the life of people, solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short. We see signs of this in the mistrust countries and people
show of others in their daily lives. In countries that have yet to be civilized
people treat are barbaric to each other.
In the absence of international law strong
countries prey on the weakness of weak countries. People have three motivations
for ending this state of war: the fear of death, the desire to have an adequate
living, and the hope to attain this through one's labor. Nevertheless, until
the state of war ends, each person has a right to everything, including another
person's life.
4. UN Security Council is the organ with primary
responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, the UN
Security Council must work constantly to enhance its potential for the
prevention and settlement of conflicts. The Council's current structure is 5
permanent members (China, France, Russia, UK, the U.S.) each with the right to
veto, and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for 2 year
terms. Under the UN Charter, it is the only body that can take decisions
binding on all UN members. The U.S. and other permanent members of the Council
must ratify any changes to the UN Charter, including any changes to the
Council's size or powers Non-governmental organizations are private
organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote interests of
the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, and undertake
community development projects. The basis of these organizations came from
outside parties who believed the politically corrupt and ethnically tied
governments would be unable to solve the nation problems. Another benefit was
to start with the grassroots of the nation and provide programs that help the
people of Africa help themselves. NGO's are value-based organizations that
depend on charitable donations and voluntary services. The key to the reasons
why NGO's are successful is the fact that all money and effort put into the
program bypasses the government. The government is unable to get their fingers
on any money so it then goes directly into the community. Beginning around
1990, non-governmental organizations dramatically increased their contact with
the UN Security Council.
Beginning in
the 1990s, several trends led towards greater NGO involvement with the Council.
Firstly, in this period, the Council assumed a much more active program of work
and began to meet on an almost continuous basis. For example, in the six years
from 1988 to 1993, the Council's total number of meetings and consultations
grew nearly fourfold while its total resolutions and presidential statements increased
more than six fold. As the Council took unprecedented action in the area of
sanctions, peacekeeping, election monitoring, policing, and post-conflict
peace-building, NGOs with international policy mandates decided that they must
follow the Council's work much more closely.
Secondly, Council delegations (and especially those of
the ten Elected members, the E-10) faced a large and growing policy burden as
the Council took on responsibilities in dozens of active crisis areas. The
smaller delegations could not keep up with this pace. They urgently sought
information expertise and policy ideas from NGOs that could help them fulfill
their responsibilities in the Council and act as a counter-weight to the large
mission staffs and vast intelligence capabilities of the Council's.
Thirdly, in
this period, NGOs were assuming a larger role in international affairs and a
greater influence in shaping public opinion on international policy issues.
Further, NGO public advocacy and media campaigns often shaped public
understanding of the crises and created public pressure on governments to act.
Fourth, because the Council's work increasingly
addressed civil wars, the collapse of government authority, and internal strife
“not interstate wars as had been largely the case previously“ its work entered
an arena where the expertise and action of NGOs was especially critical. In
every crisis, NGOs were present, struggling to feed the hungry, care for the
sick, shelter the homeless and protect the vulnerable. If the Council was to
end such conflicts, it obviously had to seek more than formal peace agreements
between belligerents.
And fifth, as awareness of globalization emerged, the
international public began to recognize the 'democratic deficit' in the global
decision making process. Countries providing troops and other personnel for the
Council's increasing peacekeeping missions grew irate that the Council was
placing their nationals at risk with scarcely any explanation or
accountability.
NGOs nonetheless began to make sporadic contacts with
the Council as an institution, or with individual Council members. And,
conversely, Council members reached out to NGOs. For example, the new contacts
arose mainly from urgent international crises such as the Gulf War in 1991 and
the Somalia crisis in 1993. The 1994 genocide in Rwanda, during which the
Council had remained shockingly inactive, alerted human rights and humanitarian
NGOs to the need for regular communication and advocacy. The Balkan wars, the
conflict in Chechnya, the deepening Palestine crisis, and conflicts in central
and western Africa had a similar effect: the post-Cold War world was obviously
not going to be an era of peace, and NGOs could not count on states to solve
these problems. NGOs with such concerns, however, had little or no regular
representation at UN headquarters in the early 1990s. Nor were they familiar
with the Council, its arcane traditions or its secretive working methods. NGOs
worked steadfastly on urgent issues such as Iraq, Sudan, the Balkans, the Great
Lakes, disarmament, sanctions reform and the Israel/Palestine conflict,
learning that support by a Council majority was not enough, no matter how just
the cause.
Ardiana Xhafa
MS in Communication
2012 U.S.A
